Description

DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to Almighty God for his protection, kindness, strength over my life throughout the period and also to my — for his financial support and moral care towards me.Also to my mentor — for her academic advice she often gives to me. May Almighty God shield them from the peril of this world and bless their entire endeavour Amen.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The successful completion of this project work could not have been a reality without the encouragement of my — and other people. My immensely appreciation goes to my humble and able supervisor Mr. — for his kindness in supervising this project. My warmest gratitude goes to my parents for their moral, spiritual and financial support throughout my study in this institution.
My appreciation goes to some of my lecturers among whom are Mr. —, and Dr. —. I also recognize the support of some of the staff of — among whom are: The General Manager, Deputy General manager, the internal Auditor Mr. — and the —. Finally, my appreciation goes to my elder sister —, my lovely friends mercy —, —, — and many others who were quite helpful.

ABSTRACT

In this work, the refractive index of sugar solution has been investigated based on the density. The refractive index of sugar solutions (5%-50%) obtained using three different instrument: Red Diode Laser, Green Diode Laser and He-Ne Laser light were found to be in the range of (1.3357-1.4117), (1.3467-1.4272) and (1.3380-1.4140) respectively. The refractive index has linear relationship with the density of sugar solution. Mathematical expressions were also derived for the refractive index of sugar solution by fitting Cauchy’s equation to the experimental data using non-linear curve at the minimum discrepancy. This study is aimed at investigating the sugar density effect on index of refraction (ior) of water.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 TITLE PAGE

APPROVAL PAGE

DEDICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ABSTRACT

TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER ONE

• INTRODUCTION
• BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
• OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
• RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
• RESEARCH QUESTION
• SCOPE OF THE STUDY
• SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
• APPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY
• DEFINITION OF TERMS

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1      OVERVIEW OF SUGAR
2.2     HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SUGAR
2.3      CHEMISTRY OF SUGAR

2.4      TYPES OF SUGAR

CHAPTER THREE

3.0      MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1      MATERIALS

3.2      METHODS OF MEASURING DENSITY REFRACTIVE INDEX OF SUGAR SOLUTIONS

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0      RESULT

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1      CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

 

CHAPTER ONE

1.0                                                        INTRODUCTION

1.1                                           BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The refractive index is described as a basic optical property of materials and its accurate value is often needed in many branches of physics and chemistry and has also several applications in many industries and materials to know the clarity of glasses and solid plastics (Singh et al., 2013). By measuring the refractive index of a binary solution, one can determine the composition of the solution (Tan CY et al., 2015). So, measurements of refractive index are widely used in many industrial and research applications to determine the density of the solution (Shao et al., 2010).

There are numerous methods for measuring the refractive index of a liquid solution that are well documented in literatures (Vilitis et al., 2019). The diversity of methods is largely due to differences in applications, test objects and the required measurement accuracy. A separate class of devices for measuring the refractive index of transparent liquids consists of systems designed for examining liquids in cuvettes made of glass, quartz or other transparent materials. During the last decade, numerous practical devices based on the principle described above using various cuvettes have been constructed for determining the refractive index (Grange et al., 2016).

The refractive index varies with density, temperature, pressure, and wavelength (Bashkatov et al., 2013). Recent studies (Subedi et al., 2016) provided the detailed study on the density mapping by the measurement of refractive index of liquids. Several techniques are reported in literature for the measurement of density of refractive index of sugar solution using various techniques (Subedi et al., 2016). Various techniques have been developed to determine the contents of sugar in solutions (Ponnadurai et al., 2014). The techniques are Inter digital Capacitor Sensor to determine the contents of sugar in solution (Ponnadurai et al., 2014); optical Coherence Tomography to determine blood glucose concentration in diabetic patients (Ponnadurai et al., 2014); Quantification of sugar in soft drinks and fruit juices by Density, refractometry, infrared spectroscopy and statistical methods (Henderson et al., 2018) are some of the techniques so far developed.

The above mentioned techniques are industrial made instrument used to determine the density of sugar in solution. Such kind of instrument is very expensive and also not available in most laboratories. So, in this research we used relatively inexpensive and locally constructed equilateral hallow prism and very sensitive laser light sources (Red and Green Diode, He-Ne) to determine the density refractive index of sugar solution.

1.2                                              OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objective was to measure the effect of sugar density on the refractive index of water as measured using a homemade laser refractometer.

1.3                                                 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

H₀:  The refractive index of sugar solution increases as the density of sugar increases.

H₁: As the temperature increases the refractive index of the solutions decrease.

1.4                                                    RESEARCH QUESTION

At the end of this work this research work shall provide answer to the following questions:

1. How does increasing density of sugar affect refractive index?
2. How does sugar affect water density?

• What is the refractive index of sugar?

1. Why does light bend in sugar water?

1.5                                                   SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope of this work covers the determination of sugar density effect on index of refraction (IOR) of water which was shown to increase with sugar concentration using a home-made laser refractometer which has important industrial applications. In this study, the method was also applied to determine the sugar contents in soft drink beverages (Pepsi, Coca, 7up, Sprite, Fanta and Mirinda) because sugar was the major ingredients of the drink. The results in g/100 ml are: (10.48 ± 0.001), (10.42 ± 0.001), (10.42 ± 0.001), (6.79 ± 0.002), (7.03 ± 0.001) and (9.89 ± 0.002) respectively. The techniques are simple, fast and inexpensive.

1.6                                           SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

refractive index is commonly determined to help identify pure liquid samples by comparing the experimental value to published values for pure compounds. Sugar is mainly used to produce beverages, determining the index of refraction (ior) of the sugar in a drink will help the company to determine the quality of the beverages.

1.7                                           APPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY

However, there are many more applications for refractive index:

•  Foods and Beverages

• Soluble solids in fruit products
• Rancidity in edible oils
• Moisture in honey and strawberry jam
• Total solids, water and fat in milk
• Oil in avocado and olives
• Fat in chocolate
• Moisture in meat

•  Petroleum

• Petroleum in oil sands
• Olefins, aromatics, paraffins
• Ethylene glycol in coolants

•  Agriculture

• Oil content of seeds
• Sweet corn maturity
• Salinity

Industrially, it is most often used to determine concentration of a dissolved solute in liquid samples. The most common application is measuring the concentration of sugar dissolved in water, such as in fruit juices and juice concentrates.

1.8                                                  DEFINITION OF TERMS

Refractometer: A Refractometer is the instrument used to measure refractive index (RI). A refractometer measures the extent to which light is bent when it moves from air into a sample and is typically used to determine the refractive index of a liquid sample.

Refraction index: Refractive Index (Index of Refraction) is a value calculated from the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to that in a second medium of greater density. The refractive index variable is most commonly symbolized by the letter n or n’ in descriptive text and mathematical equations.

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PROJECT DESCRIPTION

Format = Microsoft word

Chapters = 1-5 chapters

Price: N3,000.

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