Description
ABSTRACT
Nickel is a metal whose workability and mechanical strength at high temperatures and in corrosive environments makes it an indispensable alloying element for the realization of stainless steel, specialty steel, super-alloys, rechargeable batteries and electroplating. Because its main fields of application are key to the development of industry and, thus, to society, nickel has recently been recognized as a potentially critical mineral, despite its abundant reserves. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the geological occurrence and economic importance of nickel
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER PAGE
TITLE PAGE
APPROVAL PAGE
DEDICATION
ACKNOWELDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
- AIM/OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
- PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
- SCOPE OF THE STUDY
- REASERCH QUESTION
- RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
- PROJECT ORGANISATION
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
- OVERVIEW OF NICKEL
- ATOMIC AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
- ELECTRON CONFIGURATION Of NICKEL
- HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF NICKEL
- AN OVERVIEW OF NICKEL IN AFRICA
- FACTORS AFFECTING NICKEL SUPPLY AND DEMAND
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
- LOCATION AND GEOLOGIC SETTING
- MODE OF OCCURRENCE OF NICKEL DEPOSIT
- ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF NICKEL
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULT ANALYSIS
- RESULT AND DISCUSSION
CHAPTER FIVE
- CONCLUSION
- REFERENCES
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Nickel (Ni) is a ferro-alloy metal used mainly in the production of stainless steel. It resists corrosion and is found useful as plating material to protect other metals. Geologically, nickel is most commonly found within ultramafic and mafic igneous rocks or their metamorphic equivalents (serpentinite and talc schists), and shows a close affinity with chromium (Cr) in its mode of occurrence. However, unlike chromium, nickel occurs in mineral deposits predominantly as nickel sulfide such as pentlandite {(Fe,Ni9)S)8} and heazlewoodite (Ni3S2), but rarely as an oxide, and even rarer still, as native metal (Ni0) or Ni-Fe alloy (Krishnarao, 1964). So, it can be stated unequivocally that the occurrence of native nickel in mineral deposits is extremely rare. Garnierite, a Ni-bearing iron silicate containing about 1-2% Ni is found in lateritic nickel deposits.
In August 2016, the Nigerian Federal Ministry of Mining and Steel Development (MMSD) announced the discovery of a “highly unusual and world class” nickel deposit in Nigeria by an Australian mining company (Comet Minerals Company Ltd) near the rural village of Dangoma in Kaduna State (Fig. 1). The announcement created a lot of excitement by both the Federal Government and the local populace, who believed that Nigeria has, at last discovered its own “diamonds” (reference to South Africa) – the discovery of a large metallic ore deposit that will boost Nigeria’s solid mineral sector which has lagged behind in its contribution to the country’s Gross Domestic Product. The Nigerian economy in 2017 showed a Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of over $470 billion (US dollars). It ranked as the largest in Africa but is a monolithic economy that is heavily dependent on the oil and gas sector which contributes 38% of the nominal GDP, over 90% of export earnings, and 75% of gross revenues.
As the price of crude oil declined sharply in recent years, Nigeria has struggled to find other revenue sources by diversifying its economy through energizing the other sectors; particularly the solid minerals and mining sector which has accounted for only a paltry 0.3% of the GDP and only about 0.02% of total exports. This scenario can be compared to that of South Africa, the second largest economy in Africa, in which the mining sector contributes about 20% of the GDP. The announcement of the nickel discovery by the Australian company was welcome news that bolstered the efforts of the Federal Government in encouraging private foreign investment in the exploration and exploitation of the country’s mineral resources.
Since the discovery of this unique metallic deposit, relatively little is known about its geological characteristics while detailed exploration and surface mining had continued for over two years at the site. Access to the area is very much restricted due to privacy and security reasons. The uniqueness of the Ni deposit has generated considerable curiosity among geologists, particularly with respect to its geological environment, mode of occurrence and possible origin. A field investigation of the Dangoma deposit was undertaken in 2017, along with a review of available information and research on native Ni. This paper presents preliminary observations on the geologic setting, geological occurrence, probable origin of the nickel deposit and economic importance of nickel.
1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The main aim of this work is to carry out a research on the geological occurrence and economic importance of nickel. At the end of this work, student involved shall be able to achieve the following objectives:
- The description of nickel shall be studied
- The geological occurrence of nickel shall be known
- Application, uses and economic importance of nickel
- Discovery of nickel
1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this work is to become familiar with the geological occurrence and economically important of nickel.
1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
Nickel is estimated to be the fifth most abundant element of the earth, having an average bulk percentage of 2.7. The average nickel content of the earth’s crust, however, is estimated to be only 0.008 percent. The minimum concentration of nickel in deposits that can be economically mined is about 1.2 percent, or 150 times the content of the crustal rocks in which the deposits occur.
There are two principal types of nickel deposits : ( 1) sulfide deposits consisting mainly of pyrrhotite and pentlandite, with or without accompanying chalcopyrite, and closely associated with norite and peridotite, and (2) nickeliferous laterite deposits, occurring as weathering mantles that overlie peridotite (the nickel silicate variety) and serpentinite (the nickeliferous iron variety).
Nickeliferous laterite clearly appears to be the result of weathering under tropical to subtropical conditions, probably mostly in Tertiary time. The sulfide deposits are generally believed to have resulted, in part, from magmatic segregation of immiscible sulfides and concentration by gravity sorting of the lighter and heavier fractions. This theory is contested by some geologists, however, particularly for deposits in several of the larger districts. The most popular alternate theory is that the deposits formed by deposition from hydrothermal solutions that migrated upward from igneous sources at depth along permeable zones of fracturing and faulting. One large recently discovered deposit possibly formed by the leaching effect of sulfur-bearing solutions on peridotite during regional metamorphism. Resources and reserves in individual deposits are given if the information is available.
1.5 REASERCH QUESTION
Where are nickel deposits found?
What type of rock is nickel found in?
Where is nickel found?
How is nickel formed?
1.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In the course of carrying this study, numerous sources were used which most of them are by visiting libraries, consulting journal and news papers and online research which Google was the major source that was used.
1.7 PROJECT ORGANISATION
The work is organized as follows: chapter one discuses the introductory part of the work, chapter two presents the literature review of the study, chapter three describes the methods applied, chapter four discusses the results of the work, chapter five summarizes the research outcomes and the recommendations.
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 OVERVIEW OF NICKEL
Nickel is a chemical element with the symbol Ni and atomic number 28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. Nickel belongs to the transition metals and is hard and ductile. Pure nickel, powdered to maximize the reactive surface area, shows a significant chemical activity, but larger pieces are slow to react with air under standard conditions because an oxide layer forms on the surface and prevents further corrosion. Even so, pure native nickel is found in Earth’s crust only in tiny amounts, usually in ultramafic rocks, and in the interiors of larger nickel–iron meteorites that were not exposed to oxygen when outside Earth’s atmosphere (Anthony, John W, 1990).
Nickel is a metal used in many industrial and common daily applications (Nickel Institute, 2010)—such as in the food, automotive, military and energy industries—and its availability is a key requirement in maintaining the production levels that are indispensable to satisfy end users’ needs.
Nickel is not as well known as other metals but it plays an important, if invisible, role in modern life. When mixed with other metals nickel helps to create amazing alloys that are strong, won’t rust, can withstand high and low temperatures and can be easily shaped into anything from thin wires to flat sheets. For example, nickel is one of the metals added to iron to make stainless steel – an extremely useful product. The Earth’s magnetic field is due to the iron and nickel in its core.
Meteoric nickel is found in combination with iron, a reflection of the origin of those elements as major end products of supernova nucleosynthesis. An iron–nickel mixture is thought to compose Earth’s outer and inner cores (Stixrude, Lars, 1997).
Use of nickel (as a natural meteoric nickel–iron alloy) has been traced as far back as 3500 BCE. Nickel was first isolated and classified as a chemical element in 1751 by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, who initially mistook the ore for a copper mineral, in the cobalt mines of Los, Hälsingland, Sweden. The element’s name comes from a mischievous sprite of German miner mythology, Nickel, who personified the fact that copper-nickel ores resisted refinement into copper. An economically important source of nickel is the iron ore limonite, which often contains 1–2% nickel. Nickel’s other important ore minerals include pentlandite and a mixture of Ni-rich natural silicates known as garnierite.
Nickel is slowly oxidized by air at room temperature and is considered corrosion-resistant. Historically, it has been used for plating iron and brass, coating chemistry equipment, and manufacturing certain alloys that retain a high silvery polish, such as German silver. About 9% of world nickel production is still used for corrosion-resistant nickel plating. Nickel-plated objects sometimes provoke nickel allergy. Nickel has been widely used in coins, though its rising price has led to some replacement with cheaper metals in recent years.
According to Coey, J. M. D.; Skumryev, V.; Gallagher, K. (1999), Nickel is one of four elements (the others are iron, cobalt, and gadolinium) that are ferromagnetic at approximately room temperature. Alnico permanent magnets based partly on nickel are of intermediate strength between iron-based permanent magnets and rare-earth magnets. The metal is valuable in modern times chiefly in alloys; about 68% of world production is used in stainless steel. A further 10% is used for nickel-based and copper-based alloys, 7% for alloy steels, 3% in foundries, 9% in plating and 4% in other applications, including the fast-growing battery sector, including those in electric vehicles (EVs). As a compound, nickel has a number of niche chemical manufacturing uses, such as a catalyst for hydrogenation, cathodes for batteries, pigments and metal surface treatments (Treadgold, Tim, 2020).
To date, the main consumption of nickel is in stainless steel (Pariser, 2011), given nickel’s particular mechanical and anticorrosive properties when alloyed with other metals (Udomphol, 2007; Choudhury and El-Baradie, 1998). The wide use of stainless steel in construction and industrial fields confers on nickel a high importance from an economic point of view, in terms of total added value to each sector where the mineral is used (Raw Materials Supply Group, 2005). The Raw Materials Supply Group, headed by the European Commission, has quantitatively elaborated a critical materials graph that highlights nickel’s huge economic importance in modern society (Fig. 1).
In 2011, for the first time, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) included nickel in its annual “Critical Materials Strategy” report, with the aim of determining its importance to green technologies and its supply interruption risk (DOE, 2011). This survey has made evident a secondary, although important, role for nickel in green technologies production (INSG Secretariart, 2010) and a low risk of supply interruption in the short and in the medium to long term.
From these considerations derive the interest and need to deepen the understanding of the dynamics of the factors that most influence nickel supply and demand, and which can lead to the definition of future critical scenarios for those sectors for which nickel is the starting point.
2.2 ATOMIC AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
| The Properties of Nickel | |
| Chemical Symbol | Ni – Nickel’s name comes from the Saxon term ‘Kupfernickel’ or Devils’ Copper, as the 15th century miners thought the ore looked red-brown like copper and that it was too difficult to mine and was poisoning them (actually it was arsenic doing this). |
| Mineral | Most often in combination with sulfur and iron in pentlandite, with sulfur in millerite, with arsenic in the mineral nickeline, and with arsenic and sulfur in galena. |
| Relative density | 8.9 g/cm3 |
| Hardness | 4 on Mohs scale |
| Malleability | High |
| Ductility | High |
| Melting point | 1455°C |
| Boiling point | 2730°C |
Nickel is a silvery-white metal with a slight golden tinge that takes a high polish. It is one of only four elements that are magnetic at or near room temperature, the others being iron, cobalt and gadolinium. Its Curie temperature is 355 °C (671 °F), meaning that bulk nickel is non-magnetic above this temperature. The unit cell of nickel is a face-centered cube with the lattice parameter of 0.352 nm, giving an atomic radius of 0.124 nm. This crystal structure is stable to pressures of at least 70 GPa. Nickel belongs to the transition metals. It is hard, malleable and ductile, and has a relatively high electrical and thermal conductivity for transition metals (Hammond, C.R, 2018). The high compressive strength of 34 GPa, predicted for ideal crystals, is never obtained in the real bulk material due to the formation and movement of dislocations. However, it has been reached in Ni nanoparticles.
Nickel is a hard silver-white metal with a high melting point and can withstand very low temperatures. Nickel is rarely found in the earth in its pure form; it mixes well with other metals to make many useful alloys. Nickel is malleable and ductile and is rust-resistant. Nickel is magnetic, although not as strongly as iron.
2.3 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION Of NICKEL
The nickel atom has two electron configurations, [Ar] 3d8 4s2 and [Ar] 3d9 4s1, which are very close in energy – the symbol [Ar] refers to the argon-like core structure. There is some disagreement on which configuration has the lowest energy according to Petrucci, R.H. et al. (2002) Chemistry textbooks quote the electron configuration of nickel as [Ar] 4s2 3d8, which can also be written [Ar] 3d8 4s2. This configuration agrees with the Madelung energy ordering rule, which predicts that 4s is filled before 3d. It is supported by the experimental fact that the lowest energy state of the nickel atom is a 3d8 4s2 energy level, specifically the 3d8(3F) 4s2 3F, J = 4 level.
However, each of these two configurations splits into several energy levels due to fine structure, and the two sets of energy levels overlap. The average energy of states with configuration [Ar] 3d9 4s1 is actually lower than the average energy of states with configuration [Ar] 3d8 4s2. For this reason, the research literature on atomic calculations quotes the ground state configuration of nickel as [Ar] 3d9 4s1 (NIST Atomic, 2011).
Occurrence
On Earth, nickel occurs most often in combination with sulfur and iron in pentlandite, with sulfur in millerite, with arsenic in the mineral nickeline, and with arsenic and sulfur in nickel galena. Nickel is commonly found in iron meteorites as the alloys kamacite and taenite. The presence of nickel in meteorites was first detected in 1799 by Joseph-Louis Proust, a French chemist who then worked in Spain. Proust analyzed samples of the meteorite from Campo del Cielo, which had been obtained in 1783 by Miguel Rubín de Celis, discovering the presence in them of nickel (about 10%) along with iron (Audi, Georges, 2003)
The bulk of the nickel is mined from two types of ore deposits. The first is laterite, where the principal ore mineral mixtures are nickeliferous limonite, (Fe,Ni)O(OH), and garnierite (a mixture of various hydrous nickel and nickel-rich silicates). The second is magmatic sulfide deposits, where the principal ore mineral is pentlandite: (Ni,Fe)9S8.
Identified land-based resources throughout the world averaging 1% nickel or greater comprise at least 130 million tons of nickel (about the double of known reserves). About 60% is in laterites and 40% in sulfide deposits (Calvo, Miguel (2019).
On geophysical evidence, most of the nickel on Earth is believed to be in the Earth’s outer and inner cores. Kamacite and taenite are naturally occurring alloys of iron and nickel. For kamacite, the alloy is usually in the proportion of 90:10 to 95:5, although impurities (such as cobalt or carbon) may be present, while for taenite the nickel content is between 20% and 65%. Kamacite and taenite are also found in nickel iron meteorites (Calvo, Miguel (2019).
2.4 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF NICKEL
Because the ores of nickel are easily mistaken for ores of silver, understanding of this metal and its use dates to relatively recent times. However, the unintentional use of nickel is ancient, and can be traced back as far as 3500 BCE. Bronzes from what is now Syria have been found to contain as much as 2% nickel. Some ancient Chinese manuscripts suggest that “white copper” was used there between 1700 and 1400 BCE. This Paktong white copper was exported to Britain as early as the 17th century, but the nickel content of this alloy was not discovered until 1822. Coins of nickel-copper alloy were minted by the Bactrian kings Agathocles, Euthydemus II, and Pantaleon in the 2nd century BCE, possibly out of the Chinese cupronickel (Lacey, Anna 2013)
In medieval Germany, a red mineral was found in the Erzgebirge (Ore Mountains) that resembled copper ore. However, when miners were unable to extract any copper from it, they blamed a mischievous sprite of German mythology, Nickel (similar to Old Nick), for besetting the copper. They called this ore Kupfernickel from the German Kupfer for copper. This ore is now known to be nickeline, a nickel arsenide. In 1751, Baron Axel Fredrik Cronstedt tried to extract copper from kupfernickel at a cobalt mine in the Swedish village of Los, and instead produced a white metal that he named after the spirit that had given its name to the mineral, nickel. In modern German, Kupfernickel or Kupfer-Nickel designates the alloy cupronickel (Kelly, T. D.; Matos, G. R, 2014).
Originally, the only source for nickel was the rare Kupfernickel. Beginning in 1824, nickel was obtained as a byproduct of cobalt blue production. The first large-scale smelting of nickel began in Norway in 1848 from nickel-rich pyrrhotite. The introduction of nickel in steel production in 1889 increased the demand for nickel, and the nickel deposits of New Caledonia, discovered in 1865, provided most of the world’s supply between 1875 and 1915.
2.5 AN OVERVIEW OF NICKEL IN AFRICA
History of exploration in Africa
Gold, copper and iron have been searched for and exploited in Africa for centuries. Nickel (Ni), however, was not known or exploited in Africa before the advent of colonialism except fortuitously, due to its association with iron or copper. For example, the gossans over the Selkirk and Phoenix nickel deposits of northern Botswana were exploited for their copper and iron by pre-colonial metal-workers (Johnson, 1986).
Prior to the Second World War, exploitation of nickel was restricted to small high-grade deposits such as at Bon Accord (Mpumalanga, South Africa: De Waal, 1986), or as a by-product of other metals, for example, copper (Cu) at Waterfall Gorge (Eastern Cape, South Africa: Maske and Cawthorn, 1986) or cobalt (Co) at Bou-Azzer (Morocco: Gandini, 2011). The 1920s also saw the beginnings of production of nickel as a by-product of mining and refining of platinum-group elements (PGE) from the Bushveld Complex (Wagner, 1929).
The Second World War and its aftermath greatly enhanced the demand for nickel as a highly strategic metal, used both in armaments (tanks, guns, warships) and increasingly in everyday life (stainless steel and coinage). The post-war demand and an upsurge in exploration in the 1950s, led to discoveries of Ni-Cu sulphide deposits in Zimbabwe: Empress in 1956 (Anderson, 1986), Trojan in 1959 (Chimimba and Ncube, 1986), Madziwa in 1959 (Chimimba 1986) and in Botswana – Selebi in 1963 and Phikwe in 1966 (Gordon, 1973). The worldwide nickel boom of the 1960s and a technological and fiscal spur by the sanctions-hit Rhodesian government, led to further discoveries (Epoch and Shangani) and development of mining, smelting and refining centres in Botswana and Zimbabwe in the late 1960s and early 1970s (Mikesell, 1984; Marchand, 1996).
Until the early 1970s, African nickel exploration outside of southern Africa was quite limited. One can cite the systematic investigation of known mafic-ultramafic intrusive bodies throughout Africa by the International Nickel Company (INCO), from 1950 to 1959, that resulted in the discovery and drilling of surface Cu-Ni showings at the Kapalagulu Complex and at Ntaka Hill, both in Tanzania (Van Zyl, 1959; Tirschmann et al., 2010). In the early 1960s, the large Ni laterite deposit at Ambatovy (Madagascar: Ambatovy JV, 2014) was discovered and further deposits of Co-Ni-arsenides were found in Morocco as a result of systematic exploration (Gandini, 2011). Subsequent to the independence of many African countries, mineral exploration was accelerated throughout the 1970s and 1980s, particularly with the direct aid of multilateral organisations (e.g. United Nations Development Program/Programme des Nations Unies pour le Développement – UNDP/PNUD). This led to the discovery of large nickel deposits in African countries that had not previously been prospected for base metals. Among the major discoveries of the 1970s were those of the Sipilou-Foungbesso (Biankouma) Ni-Co laterite deposits in western Côte d’Ivoire, the Nkamouna Ni-Co-manganese (Mn) laterite in Cameroon, the Musongati Ni-Cu-Co laterite deposits of Burundi, and the Kabanga Ni sulphide deposit of northwest Tanzania (the latter two in the EANB).
Production and new developments
Currently, African nickel is produced mainly in Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe. All of the primary Ni producers are of low to very low average Ni grade (< 1.5%) and thus their operations are adversely affected when Ni prices are low (Mikesell, 1984).
In southern Africa, the largest estimated resources of nickel are in the sulphide-bearing platinum reefs of the Bushveld Complex, from which nickel is produced as a by-product of PGE mining (estimated 7 to 10 Mt contained nickel metal) (Cawthorn, 1999). However, the largest individual resource of nickel as a primary product is that of the Nkomati deposit in South Africa (0.82 Mt contained Ni at 0.34% Ni, African Rainbow Minerals, 2014). Approximately 1 Mt of nickel is contained in the combined resources of the Phoenix-Tati and Selebi- Pikwe deposits in Botswana (Bamangwato Concessions Ltd., 2014). Most of the Zimbabwean primary nickel mines have been depleted or temporarily closed due to political and economic factors, but they still contain at least 0.4 Mt of Ni as defined mineral resources (Mwana Africa, 2014). In northwestern Zambia, a new type of hydrothermal Ni sulphide deposit (Enterprise) is being developed, which contains approximately 0.5 Mt of Ni with an average grade of about 1% (First Quantum, 2014).
The major African Ni laterite deposits discovered in the 1970s have for the most part remained undeveloped, principally due to their distance from suitable deep-water ports, and the lack of infrastructure (power and transport links) within their host countries. Only the laterite deposit at Ambatovy in Madagascar, has been developed and was brought into production in 2012 by a multinational consortium (Ambatovy J.V., 2014).
2.6 FACTORS AFFECTING NICKEL SUPPLY AND DEMAND
Nickel supply is influenced mostly by the decisions made by the mining companies, which follow the needs of steel producers (Rudolf Wolff Group, 2009). Among the factors influencing supply are the production costs, which are dependent on the technical and technological choices of the mining companies, plus the cost of the energy to run the machines and the plant, and the selling price of nickel, which depends on the demand and the speculative actions that characterize the nickel market. Given the unpredictable nature of these two factors, and to simplify the discussion, they are considered immutable. However, certain economic, political, social and environ- mental events and situations, not directly related to nickel market’s structure, can change and even capture the market (Tollin, 2011b); among these factors identified by the Ernst & Young report (2011), the authors have chosen factors such as the skills shortage and resource nationalism, and have evaluated their effects on nickel production.
The skills shortage is a problem caused by the continuous advancement in technology, the growing demand for minerals, the poor planning for worker retirement and the expansion of mining operations to areas that are inaccessible or dangerous, which discourages work labor. The main consequences of this skills shortage can be the inability to expand existing mines or develop new ones.
Resource nationalism is a form of government that tends to centralize the management of and revenues from mining activities and aims to increase the financial pressure on the international market through the regulation of exports. The main consequences of this attitude are the interruption of ex- ports, in the worst-case scenario, and the inability to expand the existing mines or to develop new ones, because of the tax burden for the mining companies, in the best-case scenario.
Demand for end-use applications propagates downward to nickel demand via factors of a technical nature, such as the more expensive component price, the ability to substitute for such components (e.g., nickel itself) and nickel applicability ratio for each first or end-use application (Antrim, 2006; Moll, 2009). For the present study, these factors are considered constant because they are closely linked to technological progress and, thus, difficult to predict and to reduce the involved variables. Also, outside events can lead to the increase in demand for end-use applications, such as events related to economic growth, to a population’s growth and its purchasing power, to the measures for environmental protection, and to natural disasters (Ferreira, 2011; World Bank, 1994; Mulshaw, 2011; Anciaux, 2011; Philip et al., 1987. In this study, the authors considered an increase in nickel demand following a natural disaster such as an earthquake, which involves the reconstruction of production facilities, housing and infrastructure.
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 LOCATION AND GEOLOGIC SETTING
The Dangoma nickel deposit is located around the villages of Dangoma and Bakin Kogi in the Jema’a local government area (LGA) of southern Kaduna State. (Fig. 1). The area lies along the southern margin of the well-known Jos Plateau, and centered on latitude 9o 29’ 0” N and longitude 8o 19’ 0” E. Dangoma is situated about 15 km east of Kafanchan, a commercial town and the LGA headquarters. The area has an average elevation of about 700 m above sea level, is of low relief with slightly undulating topography and low-lying outcrops and a few prominent ridges of weathered granite scattered over the landscape (Figure 2). The lateritic regolith is thick and deeply weathered.
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Figure 1: Location of Dangoma in Jema’a LGA, Kaduna State, Nigeria
The geology of north-central Nigeria (Fig. 3) shows that the nickel deposit is localized within the Precambrian Basement Complex which is composed of the mostly Archean migmatite-gneiss complex, Proterozoic schist belts and the Pan-African Older Granites intruded by minor meta-ultramafic bodies and pegmatite dykes (Oyawoye, 1970; Ajibade and Wright, 1988). The Dangoma area lies east of the N-S trending supracrustal schist belts of northwestern Nigeria (Fig. 3), and as shown in Figure 4, it is underlain by migmatites, gneisses, (serpentinite) and granites (Jafau and Bajeh, 2007). The migmatites are mixed rocks comprised of biotite paragneiss protolith interspersed with felsic components. The biotite paragneiss often show alternating bands of dark and light-colored minerals. The granite gneisses which are scattered over the area are composed mostly of granoblastic biotite and biotite-hornblende gneisses. The granitic intrusives which belong to the Older Granite suite are the most widespread rocks in the area, and the most common varieties are biotite and biotite-hornblende granites with associated micaceous pegmatites.
Figure 2: Landscape features at the excavated Dangoma deposit
Serpentinite and talc schist bodies (meta-ultramafites) are known to occur within the Precambrian basement complex in close association with the metasediments of the Proterozoic schist belts, and rarely as isolated lenses within the migmatite-gneiss complex, such as the occurrence at Dangoma and the Mallam Tanko serpentinite in Katsina State (Wright and Ogezi, 1977). Elsewhere within the schist belts to the northwest in Zamfara State, several serpentinite bodies form linear bodies along major transcurrent faults. The serpentinites are relatively younger than some of the Proterozoic metasediments of the schist belts but are intruded in places by the Older Granites and pegmatites dated as 500-550 my old. The serpentinites are considered as “cold” ultramafic intrusives from the upper mantle and emplaced along major transcrustal faults that served as conduits. Chromite mineralization is associated with some of the serpentinites such as Mallam Tanko and Tungan Kudaku occurrences (Ogezi, 1988; Isah et. al., 2018). Outcrops of the Cenozoic Newer Basalts occur as outliers in the vicinity of Kafanchan along the western edge of the Jos Plateau. The basalts were erupted after the Plateau had achieved almost its present-day topography and are little affected by erosion (Jafau and Bajeh, 2007).
The various Precambrian rock units in the area, especially the migmatites, gneisses, and serpentinite have been subjected to varying levels of deformation and metamorphism during several episodes of orogenic activities and transected by prominent N-S and NNE-SSW trending faults and fracture systems.
3.3 MODE OF OCCURRENCE OF NICKEL DEPOSIT
The Dangoma nickel deposit nicknamed the “Titan” occurs over an area of approximately 20 square kilometers at the outskirts of Dangoma and Bakin Kogi villages. The most intensely mineralized zone is confined to about one square kilometer. The nickel mineralization is predominantly a residual deposit that occurs within a 6-10 m thick deeply weathered regolith (Fig. 5) overlying a serpentinized ultramafic body intruded in places by granite and pegmatite (Fig. 6). This type of nickel deposit has been described as unique and “highly unusual” or “extraordinary” because the Ni ore is native metal that occurs as metal pellets or “balls” measuring 0.1 to 5mm in diameter (Figure 7). The rounded nickel balls have neither been affected by alluvial concentration nor have they been reworked into a heavy mineral fraction within the regolith. Also, the nickel balls, wherever exposed have not been subjected to significant oxidation due to good drainage and the formation of a protective stable secondary oxide layer on the metal surface (Comet Minerals, 2016). The underlying bedrock tested at depth by subsurface drilling over a wide area has indicated disseminated mineralization within the serpentinite. The widespread distribution of abundant nickel metal balls and their secondary ferruginous alteration products within the weathered bedrock, are indications of a well-developed primary source that has been accentuated by tropical weathering (C0met Minerals, 2016).
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Figure 3: Precambrian Basement Complex of Northwestern Nigeria
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6 00’E 7 00’E 8 00’E 9 00’E
Figure 4: Generalized geological map of Kaduna State
Assays of the nickel ore mineral indicate it is highly enriched in nickel with concentrations averaging 94%Ni, iron concentrations of up to 4% Fe and traces of other metals, such as zinc, copper, lead, and cobalt which occur as sulfide minerals replacing nickel in the core and rims of the native nickel mineral (Comet Minerals, 2016). Based on the chemical composition, the ore mineral is a Ni-Fe alloy, tentatively identified as awaruite (Ni3Fe), also known as josephinite (Bird and Weathers, 1979). However, this identification is yet to be confirmed by more detailed ore microprobe study. It is noteworthy that the Dangoma Ni-Fe alloy is very high in Ni compared to the 70-77% Ni found in other occurrences of awaruite (Eckstrand, 1975; Britten, 2017). The traces of sulfides of copper, cobalt, lead and zinc occurring as replacements of the Ni ore mineral is attributable to late crystallization processes involving increased sulfur fugacity during ore formation.
Figure 5: Deeply weathered regolith with residual nickel balls
Figure 6: Serpentinized ultramafic host rock of Ni deposit
3.3 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF NICKEL
Nickel is one of the most versatile metals found on earth and is one of many resources that allows us to live and prosper in a modern world. A new nickel infographic from Mining Global highlights the many uses and benefits of this metal, including its use in coins and stainless steel. There are about 3,000 nickel-containing alloys in everyday use, including 300,000 products for consumer, industrial, military, transport, aerospace, marine and architectural applications. Nickel is used to make alloys, as nickel adds toughness, strength, rust resistance and various other electrical, magnetic and heat resistant properties. At least 3000 nickel alloys have been created, including stainless steel. These alloys are used for many purposes such as in construction, the chemical industry, cars (crank-shafts and axles), household products (kitchen sinks, cooking utensils, washing machines etc), propeller shafts, scientific and surgical equipment, pipelines and aircraft engines.
Nickel-metal hydride rechargeable batteries: Nickel-cadmium rechargeable batteries are used to power mobile phones, radios, clocks and calculators.
Nickel is tough, corrosion resistant, hygienic and 100% recyclable. It is essential to building and infrastructure, chemical production, communications, energy supply, environmental protection and food preparation. Rarely used in its purest form, nickel is combined with other metals to produce alloys with a combination of properties that provide both ductility and strength at high temperatures. Through its ability to withstand high heat, nickel minimizes corrosion, allowing the metal to be used for several decades without replacement. Thus, nickel is used in harsh environments such as jet engines, offshore installations and power generation facilities.
Nickel was first used for coinage in Belgium in 1860, and has been widely used since then. Australian $1 and $2 coins contain 2% nickel (with 92% copper and 6% aluminium), and our 5c, 10c, 20c and 50c coins contain 25% nickel (with 75% copper). The Australian 20 cent coin is more silver-white in colour than a $1 coin due to the relative amounts of nickel.
Nickel is one of the most important components to the U.S. stainless steel industry and as the steel industry continues to grow so too will the need for nickel. To meet this increasing need for nickel, it is critical that changes are made to the U.S. mine permitting process.
Others: nickel is used Production of soaps and margarine (by assisting in converting natural oils to solids).
Artificial hips and knees.
Kidney dialysis.
Electrical contacts and components.
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The occurrences of native metallic Ni in nature are uncommon, and more so as a concentrated Ni ore deposit, such as in Dangoma. In terrestrial occurrences, metallic nickel occurs in three forms:
(1) dissemination in serpentinized ultramafic rocks,
(2) detrital grains in alluvial or marine sediments, and
(3) lateritic or residual nickel in weathered serpentinized ultramafics.
The Dangoma deposit belong to the third category, although the extent of the disseminated mineralization in bed rock has not been fully evaluated. However, it is pertinent to understand the nature of disseminated nickel in serpentinized ultramafics as they serve as sources for the residual or lateritic nickel concentrations. Disseminations of native Ni in commercial quantities are known in Quebec and British Columbia, both in Canada where serpentinized ultramafic rocks, mainly peridotite and dunite contain awaruite (or josephinite) (Nickel, 1959; Eckstrand, 1975; Pakkanen and Luukkonen, 1995; Britten, 2017: Setortino, 2014)). Wherever the disseminated native nickel has not been affected by residual weathering, the concentrations are usually very low grade but may be economically viable.
In the Quebec Dumont deposit, disseminated Ni mineralization occurs as blebs of awaruite (Ni3Fe) in association with pentlandite ((Ni, Fe)9S8), heazlewoodite (Ni3S2), which are present in various proportions as individual disseminated grains ranging from 0.002 to 1 mm or occur together as coarse agglomerates of up to 10 mm (Setortino, 2014)). In the Decar deposit of the Cache Creek ultramafic complex in British Columbia, disseminated awaruite occurs exclusively as the ore mineral with grains ranging in size from 0.05 to 0.4 mm. The deposit is large but low grade, with indicated reserves of 1.160 billion tons (Bt) at 0.124% and inferred reserves of 0.87 Bt at 0.125% Ni. In both deposits, the Ni content of the alloy mineral varies between 70 and 76% Ni. Therefore, it is apparent that serpentinized ultramafic rocks, particularly dunite can contain disseminated metallic nickel usually in small blebs.
Figure 7: Balls of native nickel (+iron) in Dangoma deposit.
The Dangoma deposit does not contain evidence of primary or secondary nickel sulfides which may be attributed to the low sulfur fugacity during ore formation. However, the ore mineral of native nickel in the regolith occurs predominantly as rounded grains or “balls” ranging in diameter from 0.1 to 5mm compared to the minute flakes or blebs usually of <I mm size in the serpentinized host rock. What is notable worldwide about native nickel occurrences is that, they are only associated with serpentinized ultramafic rocks and never as hydrothermal deposits. Until adequate geological data are available on the subsurface characteristics of the host rocks of the Dangoma deposit, a discussion of its origin may be speculative, but because of the known spatial (and genetic) association between native nickel and serpentinized ultramafic rocks, it is reasonable to assume that the origin of the Dangoma nickel deposit is connected to the parent ultramafic bedrock and the serpentinization process that affected such rock during low grade regional metamorphism of the Precambrian metasediments and meta-ultramafites.
Previous research workers (Eckstrand, 1975; Berndt et. al., 1996; Britten, 2017) have amply demonstrated that the Ni concentrations in primary silicate minerals, such as olivine and pyroxenes in fresh ultramafic rock during magmatic crystallization are sufficient sources for the formation of native Ni-Fe alloy during serpentinization; – a process that involved low-temperature hydration of the ultramafic rock (Lamadrid et. al., 2017) and generated high H2-rich metamorphic fluid, with Ni and Fe ions reduced, mobilized, and stabilized as Ni-Fe alloy of varying grain sizes. It is proposed that the primary native nickel in the Dangoma serpentinite was initially contained in the olivine crystals of the ultramafic rock probably of dunite composition. The rock was subjected to low-grade metamorphism involving the addition of heat and water (Kil et. al., 2010) in which the olivine in the low-silica (Frost and Beard, 2007) ultramafic rock was oxidized and hydrolyzed to form an assemblage of serpentine minerals and talc, creating a strongly reducing environment where the nickel released from the decomposition of olivine was partitioned into the newly formed Ni-Fe alloy, awaruite.
The serpentinization process served only to extract and reduce Ni and Fe inherited from primary olivine and pyroxene to the elemental state and concentrate it into small metal blebs under low sulfur fugacity (fS2) (Donaldson,1981). However, the formation of large crystals or grains of native Ni is a very rare phenomenon, and can be attributed to additional process of remobilization or redistribution (dissolution and short movement) of nickel to precipitate coarser grains of awaruite as temperatures increased during progressive metamorphism from about 300° to 450°C (Britten, 2017). The roundness of the nickel grains into the so-called “balls’ without evidence of alluvial transportation is mysterious, but could have developed during chemical weathering and/or supergene processes within the thick regolith. The Cenozoic regional tectonic uplift along the edge of the Jos Plateau had exposed more of the underlying bedrock to deep weathering with limited erosion which has enhanced the accumulation and preservation of the thick Ni- bearing regolith.
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 CONCLUSIONS
The Dangoma nickel deposit is a combination of a residual deposit in a lateritic soil profile and primary disseminated mineralization in a serpentinized ultramafic host rock. The economic potential of the deposit is huge if only the nickel enrichment extends beyond the overburden into the parent rock on a large scale. Surface stripping of the overburden and extraction of nickel balls from the residual deposit have begun at Dangoma.
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