Description
ABSTRACT
The conversion of waste (such as egg shell and cow bone) obtained from agricultural processes into biocompatible materials (biomaterials) used in orthopedic application is a strategy that will add more value in waste utilization. This strategy has successfully turned the rather untransformed wastes into high value products. Eggshell and cow bone are an agricultural waste largely considered as useless and is discarded mostly because it contributes to pollution. This waste has potential for producing hydroxyapatite, a major component found in bone and teeth. Hydroxyapatite is an excellent material used in bone repair and tissue regeneration. The use of eggshell and cow bone to generate hydroxyapatite will reduce the pollution effect of the waste and the subsequent conversion of the waste into a highly valuable product. In this paper, we discussed the utilization of this agricultural waste (eggshell and cow bone) in producing hydroxyapatite (magnesium). The process of transforming eggshell and cow bone into hydroxyapatite and nanohydroxyapatite is an environmentally friendly process. Eggshell and cow bone based hydroxyapatite and nanohydroxyapatite stand as good chance of reducing the cost of treatment in bone repair or replacement with little impact on the environment
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER PAGE
TITLE PAGE
APPROVAL PAGE
DEDICATION
ACKNOWELDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
- BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
- PROBLEM STATEMENT
- AIM OF THE STUDY
- SCOPE OF THE STUDY
- SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
- PROJECT MOTIVATION
- DEFINITION OF TERMS
- PROJECT ORGANISATION
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
- INTRODUCTION
- REVIEW OF THE STUDY
- HYDROXYAPATITE: RELEVANCE IN TISSUE ENGINEERING
- OVERVIEW OF MAGNESIUM CARBONATE
- EGGSHELL: IDEAL SOURCE FOR HYDROXYAPATITE
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
- MATERIALS AND METHODS
CHAPTER FOUR
- RESULT AND DISCUSSION
CHAPTER FIVE
- CONCLUSION
- REFERENCES
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT
Agricultural waste is any waste being generated from different farming processes in accumulative concentration. Adequate utilization of agricultural waste reduces environmental problems caused by irresponsible disposal of the waste. The management of agricultural wastes is indispensable and a crucial strategy in global waste management. Waste of any kind in the environment when its concentration is in excess can become a critical factor for humans, animals, and vegetation [1]. The nature, quantity, and type of agricultural waste generated vary from country to country. The search for an effective way to properly manage agricultural waste will help protect the environment and the health quality.
For sustainable development, wastes should be recycled, reused, and channelled towards the production of value added products. This is to protect the environment on one side and on the other side to obtain value added products while establishing a zero waste standard. The utilization of the waste is a priority today in order to achieve sustainable development [2].
One way that adds great value to agricultural waste is its utilization as a biomaterial used for orthopedic application. The production of biocompatible material or biomaterial from agrowaste has added a different dimension to the utilization of agricultural waste for value added product. This is possible because some of this waste contains active compounds that have value in orthopedic application. This is a novel practice that is expected to have value in medical sciences. Most researches on agricultural waste focused mainly on its energy potentials or its use as effective chemical feedstock and as renewable raw materials because of its abundance, its cheap availability, and its renewability [3– 6]. This conversion into valuable products or energy sources is carried out by microorganisms or their components [7]. Many agricultural wastes were reported to be effective feed- stock in making useful products [8–10] such as egg shell and cow bone. The waste is readily available and cheap. Agricultural waste has been proven to serve as a good replacement option which can be used as biomaterials in therapies that replaces bone and egg shell for the growth of osteoblasts [11]. Avian eggshell is an agricultural waste that received attention and has the potential of being used for orthopedic application. The use of other wastes as biomaterials has also been reported [2].
The development of biomaterials for bone tissue replacements has increased and attracted a lot of interest due to the rise in the number of patients that requires bone replacements, especially in those suffering from bone cancer, trauma, and ageing. The biomaterials must be biocompatible with sufficient mechanical strength to support the weight of human body before being used as bone implants [12].
This paper will give an insight into utilization of avian eggshell and cow bone, an agricultural waste, to produce hydroxyapatite (magnesium) which is used for orthopedic application. Eggshells which is usually seen in restaurant and cow bone which also usually seen in slaughter remain largely unutilised and untransformed as they are discarded wrongly. Mg‐containing hydroxyapatite (HAp) has been synthesized as a model for bone mineral, and its properties. These shells and cow bone are made up of magnesium that can be used to produce hydroxyapatite, the major inorganic part in bones which is used for orthopedic application.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
The use of chemical substances in producing hydroxyapatite for orthopedic application is usually cost effective and difficult to get. This problem led to the practice of using agro-waste such as egg shell and cow bone which are agricultural products popularly consumed by higher percentage of people in Nigeria to produce magnesium containing hydroxyapatite (HAp) which is used for orthopedic application.
1.3 AIM OF THE PROJECT
The aim of this work is to analyze the development of magnesium from agro-waste of egg shell and cow bone used in dentistry. We also attempt to provide a broad overview of the new materials that are being born from experimental research, with particular attention to the materials commonly used in restorative dentistry, such as composite resins.
1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
Egg shells and cow bone which were hitherto discarded as wastes were collected, purified and powdered into a particle size in the range of 5–50 μm. A composite bone graft material in cylindrical form was prepared using egg shell powder (ESP), bone ash (BA) and gelatin. These bone grafts were characterized for their FT–IR, TGA, XRD, SEM and mechanical properties. The mechanical studies indicate that the composite having a stoichiometric ratio of BA (3 g) and ESP (7 g) has shown better mechanical properties. X-ray diffraction (XRD) data indicated the crystallographic nature of BA is akin to hydroxyapatite (HA) and both BA and ESP did not lose their crystalline nature when bone grafts were prepared. This revealed that ESP may be used as a component in bone graft utilizing the solid waste from the agricultural industry.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The use of eggshell and cow bone to generate hydroxyapatite will help in reducing the pollution effect of the waste usually seen in restaurant and slaughter and the subsequent conversion of the waste into a highly valuable product
1.6 PROJECT MOTIVATION
Eggshell and cow bone are product-specific waste from the agricultural industry that is classified as an animal by-product, for which specific uses or disposal methods.
Composting has been identified as an environmentally sound option in waste valorisation (Schaub and Leonard, 1996), which can promote sanitation of the materials used and transform organic matter into a humus-like product, to be further used as soil improver or amendment material. However, to successfully achieve pathogen elimination during composting, the starting composting mixture must contain enough available energy (easy biodegradable organic matter) to drive the process into thermophilic temperatures. Since egg shell and cow bone is mainly an inorganic material with about 94% (w/w) MgCO3, several questions may arise, namely:
“Is composting a feasibility process for Eggshell and cow bone pre-treatment, when large amount of this waste is incorporated in the starting mixture?”
“What is the maximum amount of eggshell and cow bone that can be introduced in a composting system, to attain sanitation conditions?”
“Is the evolution of composting significantly affected when Eggshell and cow bone are used as an ingredient?” “At what level is the final quality of the compost obtained influenced by eggshell and cow bone presence?” “Which is the added value that Eggshell and cow bone rich compost may present”?
To the author best knowledge, eggshell and cow bone waste composting has been scarcely addressed and the answers to these questions have been set aside by the literature. The only study found in the literature addressing eggshell and cow bone composting, used microbial inoculants to aid in the humus build-up (Kemper and Goodwin, 2009).
In this context, the main goals of this work are to:
- define/select organic materials with enough biodegradability to attain the desired temperature;
- establish the maximum incorporation of eggshell and cow bone in the starting mixture, without compromise sanitation conditions and adequate evolution of the microbial degradation/transformation of organic matter;
- appraise the quality of final products, in terms of physical, chemical and biological properties, regarding the influence of eggshell and cow bone incorporation;
- evaluate the added-value of eggshell rich compost, by focusing on its application for environmental purposes, namely immobilisation of heavy metals in contaminated soils and their removal from liquid environmental
1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Hydroxyapatite: A major component and an essential ingredient of normal bone and teeth. Hydroxyapatite makes up bone mineral and the matrix of teeth. It is hydroxyapatite that gives bones and teeth their rigidity.
Nano-hydroxyapatite: ingredients that has been used as an oral care ingredient, being incorporated in several products for the treatment of dental hypersensitivity and enamel remineralisation.
Agro-waste: is defined as waste which is produced from various agriculture activities.
1.8 PROJECT ORGANISATION
The work is organized as follows: chapter one discuses the introductory part of the work, chapter two presents the literature review of the study, chapter three describes the methods applied, chapter four discusses the results of the work, chapter five summarizes the research outcomes and the recommendations.
Reviews
There are no reviews yet.