Description
ABSTRACT
Portable water quality problems are one of the manifestations of poverty and most developing countries including Nigeria suffering a lot of health problems associated with consumption of contaminated water. Although communities living in urban areas of Nigeria such as people living within Minna metropolis have access to piped water supply, cross-contamination in the distribution system and unsafe storage are the major source of water borne diseases hence they are mostly overlooked by water professionals.
All water samples collected from drinking water tanker and water container were positive for total coliforms and faecal coliforms. The result of this study showed that the drinking water was microbially contaminated in all sampling points. The level of microbial contamination increased from before entering the storage tank to after leaving the storage tank indicating that the presence of leakage in the distribution system and contamination at the storage tanks.
The current study indicated that all water samples were bacteriologically contaminated and none of them met the WHO maximum permissible limit of drinking water quality. The unsafe piped-water supply was attributed to both leakage and contamination in the distribution system or unsafe storage. Thus, detail risk assessment should be conducted from treatment to distribution including storage and safe handling of water at the point of use in order to provide complete intervention strategies in tackling waterborne diseases.
ABBREVIATIONS
APHA: American Public Health Association
CFU: colony forming unit
NTU: nephelometric turbidity unit
WHO: World Health Organization
UNICEF: United Nations of International Children’s Emergency Fund
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER PAGE
TITLE PAGE
APPROVAL PAGE
DEDICATION
ACKNOWELDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
- PROBLEM STATEMENT
- AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
- RESEARCH QUESTION
- RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
- SCOPE OF THE STUDY
- LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
- SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
- METHODOLOGY
- DEFINITION OF TERMS
- PROJECT ORGANISATION
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
- REVIEW OF THE STUDY
- CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
- NATURE OF THE STUDY
- SUMMARY OF LITERATURE ESTABLISHING RELEVANCE
- LITERATURE SEARCH STRATEGY
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
- SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM
- DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM BLOCKS
- SYSTEM CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
- SYSTEM WORKING
- POWER SUPPLY UNIT
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
- RESULT
- DISCUSSION
CHAPTER FIVE
- CONCLUSION
- RECOMMENDATION
- REFERENCES
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Water use has been growing at more than the rate twice of population increase in the last century. The world’s six billion people are appropriating 54% of all the accessible freshwater contained in rivers, lakes and underground aquifers (WWAP 2012). The available fresh waters are being polluted by anthropogenic factors and are reducing the availability of potable water (Fard et al. 2012). Water is a transparent fluid that forms streams, lakes, oceans, and rain and is the major constituent of organisms’ fluids. Water is an inorganic, odorless, tasteless, transparent, and nearly colorless substance made up of hydrogen and oxygen existing in gaseous, liquid, and solid states (Zumdahl, 2020). Water covers 71% of the earth’s surface and is vital for all known forms of life. The instant development of developing nations includes having a more significant population of people who can improve water and improve health. However, 1.2 billion people worldwide do not have access to clean, safe water, and most of these people are in developing countries (Amaechi, 2016 and Jidawna et al., 2014).
Water quality is becoming a major problem, as evidenced by frequent outbreaks of water borne diseases in both rural and urban areas of developing countries. Water borne diseases are still a major health burden in many parts of the world and estimated to cause about 842,000 diarrhoea disease deaths per year (WHO 2014). At present, 663 million people do not have access to clean and safe water out of which 37% of those people live in Nigeria (UNICEF/WHO 2015). Safe drinking water is defined as water with microbial, chemical and physical characteristics that meet WHO guidelines (WHO 2015). For instance, the microbial guideline states that coliform bacteria must not be detectable in 100 ml samples of water to be considered as safe and their presence in drinking water indicates the possibility of pathogenic bacteria. Regarding the physicochemical quality of drinking water, the guidelines states that water with turbidity values below 5 NTU can be considered as safe, in these terms of turbidity.
In Nigeria, water tanker and water tanker are significant sources of drinking water storage. However, these sources are not entirely safe as they may have contaminants that may be dangerous to health (Amaechi, 2016). A study conducted in 72 towns and cities in Edo- State, Nigeria, Idogho, Yahaya, and Dagona (2014) found sweeping typhoid occurrences resulting from unhealthy water and poor sanitation. In a similar study in Mozanbique, Gonzalez-Gomez, Lluch-Frechina, and Guardiola (2013) found a connection between unsafe water and sanitation and diarrhea in children.
The water supply in the Minna, Niger State of Nigeria is inadequate to meet the needs of the population (Amaechi, 2016). As an alternative to obtaining clean water, water bagging industries in Nigeria have created sachet water popularly known as “pure water” Across the world, and the challenge with the “pure water” was that majority of the them cannot afford to buy the quantity that will serve the whole family that is why they engage in storing water in a tanker and container. Studies have indicated the effects of unsanitary water on the overall health of surrounding communities (Wright et al., 2016). In Nigeria, despite the involvement of the World Bank, African Development Bank, and United Nations Children’s Educational Fund (UNICEF) to improve drinking water quality, accessing safe water is still a challenge (Ajayi, Sridhar, Adekunle, & Oluwande, 2008).
Drinking water, regardless of its source, is usually subjected to safety and quality tests. Ishaku, Majid, Ajayi, and Haruna (2011) stated that the water supply in rural areas in Nigeria is a public health dilemma as over 70% of the households do not have access to clean drinking water. Gregory and Victor (2018) confirmed this by reporting the need to examine issues arising from the increase in water tanker and water container in Nigeria and concerns regarding water contamination. Water tanker and water container have become the most common alternatives for storing drinking water for the average Nigerian. However, reports indicated that most of these sources might not meet acceptable water quality for consumption purposes (Amaechi, 2016). Therefore, the main objective of this study was to assess physicochemical and bacteriological qualities of water stored in water tanker and water container.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
The need to access safe water has forced many developing nations to opt for providing safe drinking water from water tanker and water container (Atta, 2017). Most of the water tanker and water container is used in supplying portable water in Nigeria is sold without sufficient treatment and monitoring and may not be free from physical, chemical, and bacteriological contamination (Emenike et al., 2017; Omalu et al., 2010). In some instances, the borehole and sachet water production companies’ storage tanks and pipes are not well maintained to ensure good quality and safety of water stored in them (Daniel & Daoda, 2016). According to Omalu et al. (2010), the physical assessment of some sachet water in Nigeria is necessary. There is an increasing understanding that contaminated water consumption is responsible for several health-related disorders such as waterborne infections like diarrhea and typhoid fever (Aroh et al., 2013; D. M. Musa et al., 2018).
The proliferation of unregulated water tanker and water container for portable water production in Minna and its surrounding environment has raised concerns about water quality and suitability for safe drinking and other domestic purposes in line with regulatory standards. Waterborne diseases account for 80% of developing nations’ illnesses, killing a child every 8 seconds (Akpen et al., 2018; Ibrahim, Umaru, & Akinsorji, 2007). Dada (2009) and D. A. Shigut et al. (2017) described the weaken of monitoring and production quality of water tanker and water container and the treatment process. Dada (2009) recommended the need for more research, as most water sources were inadequately regulated.
- AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
Access to safe drinking water is one of the major challenges of the 21st century (Halage et al., 2015). Unhygienic water is a global public health concern, putting people at risk for a host of diarrheal diseases and chemical intoxication (Emenike et al., 2017). Although disease outbreaks due to contaminated packaged water are not common, any potential contamination may lead to an epidemic because of the high demand and consumption of this form of water (Halage et al., 2015). The main aim of the current quantitative study was to determine the level of bacteriological contamination of water tanker and water container in Minna municipal local government area of Niger State, Nigeria. The objectives of the study are:
i. To determine the effect of water tanker and water container with the time on portable water quality.
ii. To examine the correlation between the bacteriological parameters of drinking water sourced from the water tanker and water container.
iii. To determine how safe it is to use water tanker and water container in storing portable water.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The following research questions were used to guide this study:
1: Are the levels of water quality from water tanker and water container in Minna municipal area of Niger State, Nigeria, in compliance with the WHO/UNICEF standards?
2: Is there any bacteriological parameters of drinking water sourced from water tanker and water container in Minna municipal area of Niger State, Nigeria?
1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
Ho1: The levels of water quality from water tanker and water container in Minna municipal area of Niger State, Nigeria, comply with the WHO/UNICEF standards.
Ha1: The levels of water quality from water tanker and water container in Minna municipal area of Minna, Niger State, Nigeria, do not comply with the WHO/UNICEF standards.
1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
Drinking water is potable and safe if it is free from physical, chemical, and microbiological contaminants. Despite the Nigerian government’s interventions to alleviate water contamination, a considerable number of Nigerians are still without safe potable water. The purpose of this quantitative cross-sectional study was to examine whether the level of contamination of drinking water sourced from water tanker and water container with time on potable water quality in Minna is in compliance with World Health Organization (WHO) standards, and to examine bacteriological parameters of drinking water sourced from water tanker and water container.
- LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
As we all know that no human effort to achieve a set of goals goes without difficulties, certain constraints were encountered in the course of carrying out this project and they are as follows:-
- Difficulty in information collection: I found it too difficult in laying hands of useful information regarding this work and this course me to visit different libraries and internet for solution.
- Financial Constraint: Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data collection (internet).
- Time Constraint: The researcher will simultaneously engage in this study with other academic work. This consequently will cut down on the time devoted for the research work
1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This research work will throw more light on the best techniques for having a safe portable water. This study will also be designed to be of immense benefit to all the users of water tanker and water container.
This study’s findings will be provided to the authorities to promote water quality standards for safe drinking water. Unsafe water is a global public health concern. The findings may help with designing a program of mandatory, periodic testing of water tanker and water container to ensure that they comply with the rules and regulations of the WHO for safe water operating procedures (WHO, 2018). The implementation of periodic water testing and monitoring may have a dramatic effect on the quality of drinking water and an eventual reduction in the attendant effects of contaminated water among Minna people.
1.9 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In the course of carrying this study, numerous sources were used which most of them are by visiting libraries, consulting journal and news papers and online research which Google was the major source that was used.
1.10 DEFINITION OF TERMS
This section includes defined terms used in the study:
Water tanker: is designed to carry and transfer water with either road cleaning purposes or to distribute potable (drinkable) water. The Tank is made of sheet metal or stainless steel.
Water container is used for storing water for consumption.
Byproduct: The process of making one thing results in a second product; that second thing is called a byproduct. For instance, byproducts result when chlorine reacts with naturally present compounds in the water. The formation of these products takes place during reactions in which organic substances, such as humid acid and fulvic acid, form a joint production process (Miller-Keone &Toole, 2003).
Citrobacter proteus: Bacteria associated with diarrhea and secondary infections in debilitated persons occasionally causing primary septicemia. The bacteria can be found in soil, water, and the human intestine (Miller-Keone & Toole, 2003).
Hardness: High mineral content in water.
Iron: Mineral from groundwater that gives an unpleasant metallic taste.
Sachet water: Water bagged in a 250 ml synthetic polyethylene plastic bag inside an industrial compound’s operation site, which is affordable to the public (Kumpel et al., 2017).
Salmonella infection (salmonellosis): A common bacterial disease that affects the intestinal tract. Humans become infected most frequently through contaminated water or food. People with salmonella infection usually have symptoms such vomiting, diarrhea, fever, and abdominal cramps within 72 hours (Kumpel et al.,2017).
Tap Score: A Tap Score kit is a laboratory water testing kit for testing hundreds of contaminants. Attributes measured include pH, alkalinity, TDS, coliform counts, color, order, iron, calcium, hardness, and others.
Water pollution index (WPI): The sum ratio of the measured average values of samples tested.
1.11 PROJECT ORGANISATION
The work is organized as follows: chapter one discuses the introductory part of the work, chapter two presents the literature review of the study, chapter three describes the methods applied, chapter four discusses the results of the work, chapter five summarizes the research outcomes and the recommendations.
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