Description
ABSTRACT
Increasing number of road accidents coupled with increasing vehicle population means an increase in the number of aggressive road users resulting in incidence of road rage. Inexperienced drivers often experience anxiety due to their underdeveloped and declining skills, which influence their behaviour. To highlight the effectiveness of correct training on the drivers’ performance, this research work was initiated at Traffic Psychological Laboratory. In this study, a purposive sample of two groups of 102 drivers was selected and they were administered the road sign test. Findings: The analysis of the data highlights that maximum level of awareness about road sign of driving on hill roads (89%), seat belts usage while driving (89%) the safe way of stopping during emergency (40%), safe place of parking the vehicle (39%) and road markings (27%). Overall, drivers have shown average and above average level of awareness 52% to 77
TABLE OF CONTENT
TITLE PAGE
APPROVAL PAGE
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT.
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
- BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
- AIM OF THE STUDY
- OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
- STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
- PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
- SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
- RESEARCH QUESTIONS
- SCOPE OF THE STUDY
- LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
- DEFINITION OF TERMS.
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
- OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
- ROAD TRAFFIC SAFETY
- BACKGROUND ROAD TRAFFIC CRASHES
- VEHICLE SAFETY
- REGULATION OF ROAD USERS
- TRAFFIC SIGNS
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
- STUDY DESIGN
- STUDY AREA
- STUDY PARTICIPANTS
- SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
- SAMPLE AND SAMPLING PROCEDURE
- STUDY PROCEDURES
- STUDY MEASURES FOR INTERVENTION AND CONTROL DRIVERS
- DATA ANALYSIS
- DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE
- PROCEDURE FOR DATA ANALYSIS
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULT ANALYSIS
4.1. RESPONDENTS’ SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
4.2 KNOWLEDGE OF ROAD SAFETY
4.3 DISCUSSION
CHPATER FIVE
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND REFERENCES
- DISCUSSION
- CONCLUSION
- LIMITATION
- REFERENCES
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The magnitude of road accidents and fatalities in Nigeria is alarming. This is evident from the fact that every hour there are about 56 accidents (about one accident every minute). Similarly, every hour more than 14 deaths occur due to road accidents i.e. one death in every 4 minutes [Source: morth.nic.in]. This is also highlighted by the scarce health research output [Dandona & Mishra, 2004]. It is relatively easy for people to get a license without proper driving skills in Nigeria. Hence, emphasis on proper training of drivers through a proper driving licence system should be viewed as an effective way to increase traffic safety attitude The World report on road traffic injury prevention calls for governments to make road safety a political priority, and highlights recommendations with regard to policy, legislation and enforcement, and development of institutional capacity to improve road safety [Peden et al., 2004]. According to Kostyniuk et al., (2002) analyzed 34,244 Car-Car Crashes and 10,732 fatal Car-Truck crashes in which they analyzed main causes behind these accidents. The study concluded that apart from other causes following human factors were responsible for accidents:
- Failing to keep lane
- Failing to yield right of way
- Driving in excess of speed
- Inattentiveness
- Car following too close was more likely found among male drivers
- Young drivers were found having drugs and alcohol more in comparison to older age groups which was one of the causes leading to accidents
- Ignorance of traffic control devices or law
- BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Road transportation is by far the commonest means of transportation in Nigeria when compared to other means like air, rail and water. The technology has made life easy compared to previous means of transportation such as the use of animals during the pre colonial era. Nigerian economy despite its flaws, has afforded a large number of its populace the means to own cars making road traffic a major problem with grave disadvantages.
In Nigeria, road accidents have been a disturbing phenomenon that has constituted a menace. It is generally believed but not statistically proven that the rate of road accidents in Nigeria has geometrically increased. Road accidents are caused by various reasons, ranging from carelessness on the part of the drivers to the deplorable nature of our roads. Put differently, Nigerian roads have become killing fields without protection for their users. Travellers heave a sigh of relief if they make their destinations. The worrisome trend has tremendous negative impact on the nation’s health system as well as its social and economic aspirations. It was estimated that the total number of registered vehicles in Nigeria rose between 1990 – 2006 from 700,000 to 6,000,000 (Umar 2010). Despite the happiness this brought and change of quality of family lives associated with owning a vehicle, its possession has made so many families bereaved of their breadwinners or lovely ones due to unprecedented rate of road traffic accidents in Nigeria. According to the Federal Road Safety Commission, not less than 88,520 road users lost their lives between 1991 and 2000 alone, most victims being between 20-40 years. There is need to view road accident as a very major issue requiring urgent attention aimed at preventing premature deaths, reducing the health, social and economic impacts it portends to the average Nigerian. This disturbing assertion will be the bedrock of our statistical study on road accidents in Nigeria.
1.2 AIM OF THE STUDY
Road traffic injuries have persisted as a serious public health problem and much of the health burden is in developing countries. Over-speeding, poor enforcement of traffic regulations and commuter buses have been highly implicated in road traffic injuries in developing countries. The aim of this study was to determine drivers’ knowledge of selected road safety measures, i.e. the pre-requisites for driver’s license, road signs and speed limits. This assessment was carried out in ughelli Local Government Area, Delta State, Nigeria.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
- To increase and improve the measures of effectiveness of road safety Education, Training and Publicity projects.
- To increase and improve the measures of effectiveness of ughelli road users.
- To improve the efficient ways of preventing road accidents.
- To reduce the percentage of road accident.
- To educate drivers of ughelli on how to use road signs as a means of preventing accident.
1.4 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
Road safety education is the program of educational activities around road safety that is provided to road users such as commercial drivers as a means of preventing accidents on the road. However the purpose of this study to draft means of preventing accident on our roads by ensuring that receive the knowledge on how to use road signs.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Road safety education is the program of educational activities around road safety that is provided to road users such as commercial drivers.
This study also encourages and supports the role that parents and careers play in helping their children to be safe road users and to learn about road safety. It seeks to develop the behaviours and attitudes for safe road use relevant to the development of children and young people as passengers, pedestrians, cyclists and as novice drivers.
To be effective, this study must be evidence-based and match the child/young person’s stage of development and level of independence as a road user.
1.6 SCOPE OF STUDY
The scope of this study is to create awareness and at the same time acknowledge the assessment of commercial drivers in Nigeria – knowledge on the use of road signs as a means of preventing accidents.
Furthermore the reason embarked on this topic is to find out how both government and individual are contributing in prevention of accident.
1.7 RESEARCH QUESTION
- What roles do road signs play in preventing accident?
- What impact does road signs have on drivers and other road users?
- How far do road signs serve the educational need of the target?
- Is there any other means of reducing accident in Nigeria apart from using road signs?
- Do a road sign have negative impact on road users?
1.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
It is necessary to mention some of the limitation of this research work. One of the major limitations is in the getting relevant educational materials used in the research work. Another limitation of this research work is the difficulty in obtaining relevant information in that a few of our values were missing but these missing values were not statistical significant enough to be noticed. It is hoped that despite this limitations, the study would still be useful to Nigerians road users.
1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Accident: an unpleasant event especially in a vehicle that happens unexpectedly and causes injury or damage
Road accident: a traffic accident involving vehicles, pedestrians or cyclists.
Air bags: safety devices installed in vehicles that inflate to protect the driver or passengers in case of a collision.
Road traffic accident: a collision involving at least one vehicle in motion on a public or private road that results in at least one person being injured or killed.
Road traffic crash: a collision or incident that may or may not lead to injury, occurring on a public road and involving at least one moving vehicle.
Road traffic fatality: a death occurring within 30 days of the road traffic crash.
Road traffic injuries: fatal or non-fatal injuries incurred as a result of a road traffic crash. Road user: a person using any part of the road system as a non-motorized or motorized transport user.
Seat-belt: vehicle occupant restraint, worn to protect an occupant from injury, ejection or forward movement in the event of a crash or sudden deceleration.
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Globally, many people drive several hours to and from work on a daily basis and this exposes them to the risk of road crashes and ensuing injuries1. Those who drive for work are referred to as work-related drivers and have been described as, “individuals who drive at least once per week for work-related purposes”2. These drivers include truck drivers, couriers, police and emergency service drivers and sales people3. Other categories of work-related drivers described by Dimmer and Parker (1999) include, “senior executives provided with salary sacrificed vehicles, those who drive work-related vehicles both for work and non- work purposes, and those employed to drive fleet cars, vans, or other specialist vehicles”4. Over the years, work-related driver safety has become recognized as a significant cause of morbidity and mortality resulting in significant human and economic losses5. In view of this, interventions to reduce the incidence of work- related road crashes have been instituted2. It is essential for all road users including work-related drivers to have good road safety knowledge as this has been shown to influence driving behaviours and practices6,7. Some interventions to reduce work-related road crashes thus focus on educating the drivers about road safety issues and regulations2.
In Nigeria, anecdotal reports indicate that many formal sector establishments including government institutions and private companies employ a substantial population of drivers. Although there is ample research on injury incidence, road safety practices such as seatbelt and helmet use, road safety and first aid knowledge among commercial drivers and motorcyclists in Nigeria and other developing countries8-14, there is a paucity of published research on the road safety issues of drivers employed by formal establishments. This is in spite of the fact that (i) the job description of these drivers places them on the road for several hours where they are exposed to the risk of road crashes and (ii) their formal work-environment provides a unique opportunity for their employers to organize training in road safety measures for them as well as facilitate their compliance to road safety regulations.
A previous study on, “the effect of a road safety and first aid training intervention on the road safety knowledge and first aid knowledge and skills of commercial drivers’ plying the Lagos-Ibadan expressway”, demonstrated a significant increase in all outcomes following the training intervention 8,15. Based on this, the current research was extended to involve work-related drivers in view of the paucity of published findings among them and the impact of work-related crashes on human development 5. Our research hypothesis was to determine if a road safety education intervention would result in a change in the immediate post intervention road safety knowledge of the drivers. Additionally, we sought to determine if the increase in knowledge would be sustained over time. Our study findings will be beneficial for employers of large fleets who desire to develop and implement road safety interventions for their drivers. In addition, the findings will also be useful in developing road safety policies that will include other categories of drivers.
2.2 ROAD TRAFFIC SAFETY
Road traffic safety refers to the methods and measures used to prevent road users from being killed or seriously injured. Typical road users include: pedestrians, cyclists, motorists, vehicle passengers, horse-riders and passengers of on-road public transport.
Best-practices in modern road safety strategy: The basic strategy of a Safe System approach is to ensure that in the event of a crash, the impact energies remain below the threshold likely to produce either death or serious injury. This threshold will vary from crash scenario to crash scenario, depending upon the level of protection offered to the road users involved. For example, the chances of survival for an unprotected pedestrian hit by a vehicle diminish rapidly at speeds greater than 30 km/h, whereas for a properly restrained motor vehicle occupant the critical impact speed is 50 km/h (for side impact crashes) and 70 km/h (for head-on crashes).
As sustainable solutions for all classes of road safety have not been identified, particularly low-traffic rural and remote roads, a hierarchy of control should be applied, similar to classifications used to improve occupational safety and health. At the highest level is sustainable prevention of serious injury and death crashes, with sustainable requiring all key result areas to be considered. At the second level is real time risk reduction, which involves providing users at severe risk with a specific warning to enable them to take mitigating action.
2.3 BACKGROUND ROAD TRAFFIC CRASHES
Road traffic crashes are one of the world’s largest public health and injury prevention problems. The problem is all the more acute because the victims are overwhelmingly healthy before their crashes. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), more than 1 million people are killed on the world’s roads each year.[3] A report published by the WHO in 2004 estimated that some 1.2 million people were killed and 50 million injured in traffic collisions on the roads around the world each year[4] and was the leading cause of death among children 10–19 years of age. The report also noted that the problem was most severe in developing countries and that simple prevention measures could halve the number of deaths.[5]
The standard measures used in assessing road safety interventions are fatalities and killed or seriously injured (KSI) rates, usually per billion (109) passenger ilometers. Countries caught in the old road safety paradigm,[6] replace KSI rates with crash rates – for example, crashes per million vehicle miles.
Vehicle speed within the human tolerances for avoiding serious injury and death is a key goal of modern road design because impact speed affects the severity of injury to both occupants and pedestrians. For occupants, Joksch (1993) found the probability of death for drivers in multi-vehicle accidents increased as the fourth power of impact speed (often referred to by the mathematical term δv (“delta V”), meaning change in velocity). Injuries are caused by sudden, severe acceleration (or deceleration); this is difficult to measure. However, crash reconstruction techniques can estimate vehicle speeds before a crash. Therefore, the change in speed is used as a surrogate for acceleration. This enabled the Swedish Road Administration to identify the KSI risk curves using actual crash reconstruction data which led to the human tolerances for serious injury and death referenced above.
Interventions are generally much easier to identify in the modern road safety paradigm, whose focus is on the human tolerances for serious injury and death. For example, the elimination of head-on KSI crashes simply required the installation of an appropriate median crash barrier. Also, roundabouts, often with speed reducing approaches, encounter very few KSI crashes.
The old road safety paradigm of purely crash risk is a far more complex matter. Contributing factors to highway crashes may be related to the driver (such as driver error, illness, or fatigue), the vehicle (brake, steering, or throttle failures), or the road itself (lack of sight distance, poor roadside clear zones, etc.). Interventions may seek to reduce or compensate for these factors, or reduce the severity of crashes. A comprehensive outline of interventions areas can be seen in management systems for road safety. Study conducted in Finland revealed that the fatality risk is increased most when a road accident type is either pedestrian or meeting of the vehicles.[7]
In addition to management systems, which apply predominantly to networks in built-up areas, another class of interventions relates to the design of roadway networks for new districts. Such interventions explore the configurations of a network that will inherently reduce the probability of collisions.[8]
Interventions for the prevention of road traffic injuries are often evaluated; the Cochrane Library has published a wide variety of reviews of interventions for the prevention of road traffic injuries.
2.4 VEHICLE SAFETY
Safety can be improved in various ways depending on the transport taken.
Buses and coaches
Safety can be improved in various simple ways to reduce the chance of an accident occurring. Avoiding rushing or standing in unsafe places on the bus or coach and following the rules on the bus or coach itself will greatly increase the safety of a person travelling by bus or coach. Various safety features can also be implemented into buses and coaches to improve safety including safety bars for people to hold onto.
The main ways to stay safe when travelling by bus or coach are as follows:
- Leave your location early so that you do not have to run to catch the bus or coach.
- At the bus stop, always follow the queue.
- Do not board or alight at a bus stop other than an official one.
- Never board or alight at a red light crossing or unauthorized bus stop.
- Board the bus only after it has come to a halt without rushing in or pushing others.
- Do not sit, stand or travel on the footboard of the bus.
- Do not put any part of your body outside a moving or a stationary bus.
- While in the bus, refrain from shouting or making noise as it can distract the driver.
- Always hold onto the handrail if standing in a moving bus, especially on sharp turns.
- Always adhere to the bus safety rules.
Cars
Safety can be improved by reducing the chances of a driver making an error, or by designing vehicles to reduce the severity of crashes that do occur. Most industrialized countries have comprehensive requirements and specifications for safety-related vehicle devices, systems, design, and construction. These may include:
- Passenger restraints such as seat belts — often in conjunction with laws requiring their use — and airbags
- Crash avoidance equipment such as lights and reflectors
- Driver assistance systems such as Electronic Stability Control
- Crash survivability design including fire-retardant interior materials, standards for fuel system integrity, and the use of safety glass
- Sobriety detectors: These interlocks prevent the ignition key from working if the driver breathes into one and it detects significant quantities of alcohol. They have been used by some commercial transport companies, or suggested for use with persistent drunk-driving offenders on a voluntary basis[42]
The Dutch Reach – Use far hand on handle when opening to avoid dooring cyclists or injuries to exiting drivers and passengers.
Motorists and passengers – both front and rear – can make dooring less likely by practicing the “Dutch reach” – opening the car door by reaching across the body with the more distant hand.
Motorbikes
Nigeria road casualty statistics show that motorcycle riders are nine times more likely to crash, and 17 times more likely to die in a crash, than car drivers. The higher fatality risk is due in part to the lack of crash protection (unlike in enclosed vehicles such as cars), combined with the high speeds motorcycles typically travel at. According to US statistics, the percentage of intoxicated motorcyclists in fatal crashes is higher than other riders on roads. Helmets also play a major role in the safety of motorcyclists. In 2008, The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) estimated the helmets are 37 percent effective in saving lives of motorcyclists involved in crashes.
Trucks
According to the Nigeria road safety corps “it has been estimated that up to 25% of accidents involving trucks can be attributable to inadequate cargo securing”. Improperly-secured cargo can cause severe accidents and lead to loss of cargo, loss of lives, loss of vehicles, and can be a hazard for the environment. One way to stabilize, secure, and protect cargo during transportation on the road is by using dunnage bags, which are placed in the voids among the cargo and are designed to prevent the load from moving during transport.
Together for Safer Roads (TSR) has developed best practices for implementing corporate road safety programs that includes data management and analysis, route mapping, investment and upkeep of fleets, safety policies and training for employees, and first-aid/safety training in case collisions do occur.
Police
Hundreds of people are killed each year due to high-speed chases of fleeing suspects by police. Different jurisdictions allow such pursuits in different circumstances; fewer injuries might occur if these are restricted to violent felonies.
2.5 REGULATION OF ROAD USERS
Various types of road user regulations are in force or have been tried in most jurisdictions around the world, some these are discussed by road user type below.
Motor vehicle users
Dependent on jurisdiction, driver’s age, road type and vehicle type, motor vehicle drivers may be required to pass a driving test (public transport and goods vehicle drivers may need additional training and licensing), conform to restrictions on driving after consuming alcohol or various drugs, comply with restrictions on use of mobile phones, be covered by compulsory insurance, wear seat belts and comply with certain speed limits. Motorcycle riders may additionally be compelled to wear a motorcycle helmet. Drivers of certain vehicle types may be subject to maximum driving hour regulations.
The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety proposes restrictions for new drivers,[55] including a “curfew” imposed on young drivers to prevent them driving at night, an experienced supervisor to chaperone the less experienced driver, forbidding the carrying of passengers, zero alcohol tolerance, raising the standards required for driving instructors and improving the driving test, vehicle restrictions (e.g. restricting access to ‘high-performance’ vehicles), a sign placed on the back of the vehicle (an N- or P-Plate) to notify other drivers of a novice driver and encouraging good behaviour in the post-test period.
While government has primary responsibility for providing safe roads, the challenges of development and equity require that all segments of society engage and contribute, including the private sector. Private and public sector coalitions, like Together for Safer Roads (TSR) and the Road to Zero Coalition exist to work alongside government policies to advance the business case of having safer roads; they help companies meet their duty of care to employees and minimize fleet-related dangers to the wider community. Safer roads also benefit business by improving employee health and safety, by protecting assets, reducing productivity losses and healthcare costs, and enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of supply chains.
Some countries or states have already implemented some of these ideas through Vision Zero networks. Pay-as-you-drive adjusts insurance costs according to when and where the person drives.
Pedal bicycle users
Dependent on jurisdiction, road type and age, pedal cyclists may be required conform to restrictions on driving after consuming alcohol or various drugs, comply with restrictions on use of mobile phones, be covered by compulsory insurance, wear a bicycle helmet and comply with certain speed limits.
Pedestrians
Dependent on jurisdiction, jaywalking may be prohibited. The frequent road safety education for the children helps to improve the dangerous behaviors.
Animals
Collisions with animals are usually fatal to the animals, and occasionally to drivers as well.
2.6 TRAFFIC SIGNS
Regulatory signs
Regulatory signs tell you about laws that must be obeyed. Except for STOP, GIVE WAY and ROUNDABOUT signs, most regulatory signs are rectangles. They are usually black on a white background. Sometimes they also have a colour such as red. Some parking signs are green on white.
Some of the most common regulatory signs are shown on this page.
Left image:Image Keep to the left of this sign. Centre image:Do not drive beyond this sign. Right image:You must not turn right or make a U turn.
Left image:You must not make a U turn. Centre image:You must keep right. Right image:This street now has lanes travelling in opposite directions.
Left image: All traffic in the left lane must turn left. Right image: You must turn right.
Warning signs
Warning signs tell you that there may be dangers ahead. They are usually black on a yellow background and are mostly diamond shaped.
Pictures, diagrams and symbols are used to alert you to danger.
Left image: Crossroads ahead. Centre image: The road you are travelling on ends, you must give way to all traffic. Right image: Road conditions will change ahead to two lanes of oncoming traffic.
Left image: The road ahead curves to the right. Centre image: There is a sharp right turn in the road ahead. Right image: Sharp bend to the left ahead
Left image: Road divides ahead. Centre image: Divided road ends ahead. Right image: Road narrows ahead.
Left image: A side road meets the road you are travelling on. Centre image: Winding road ahead. Right image: Give way sign ahead.
Left image: Stop sign ahead. Centre image: Pedestrian crossing ahead. Right image: Pedestrians may be crossing ahead.
Left image: Hospital ahead drive carefully. Centre image: Look out for bicycle riders. Right image: Road is slippery when wet.
Left image: There is a hump in the road ahead(a hump is a sudden slope up and then down) Centre image:Look out for kangaroos. Right image: As you approach the hill ahead, you will not be able to see a safe distance in front of you. Drive carefully.
Left image: The road ahead is under water (a stream for example). Right image: Grid ahead. A grid is a row of metal lengths across the road.
Left image: Beware of slow moving vehicles entering traffic. Right image: Narrow bridge ahead, slow down and be prepared to give way or stop.
Left image:This sign is used to advise drivers that the road ahead may be covered in floodwaters. Right image: This sign shows the depth of floodwaters across the road.
Advisory Signs
Advisory speed signs are sometimes used together with other signs. They show the maximum speed that is safe in good conditions.
Sometimes other signs are used together with warning signs to advise on how long you should look out for a particular hazard. Road bends to right. 55 km/h maximum speed in good conditions.
Stock signs
When you see a sign with a picture of an animal, or words such as ‘stock crossing’, you may be approaching animals on or near the road.
You must slow down or stop to avoid crashing with them. Fines apply if you do not obey these signs.
Stock may be crossing ahead
Warning triangles for crashes and breakdowns
Vehicles with a GVM over 12 tonnes must place a minimum of three warning triangles in breakdown situations. See Heavy Vehicle Drivers’ Handbook for details.
Variable message signs
Variable Message Signs are large electronic signs placed on the side of some roads.
They display messages to warn motorists of changes in normal traffic conditions on the road ahead, such as fog, crashes, road works, congestion and road closures.
These early warnings help provide a safe and efficient traffic flow.
Motorway signs
Motorway signs give information about the start and end of a motorway and the exits from a motorway.
Left image: These signs indicate the start of a motorway. Right image: These signs indicate the end of a motorway.
Left image: Exit from motorway in 2km. Right image: Exit from motorway now.
Priority for buses
In a built-up area a bus that has a GIVE WAY sign displayed and signals its intention to pull out from its stopping place, has priority over other traffic, travelling in the left lane or left line of traffic.
Temporary roadwork signs
These signs are used at roadworks. Slow down, look out for any hazards and be prepared to stop. You must obey any signal from a traffic controller and give way to any worker.
Speed limit signs at work zones are enforceable and must be obeyed.
Left sign:Traffic controller ahead be prepared to stop(night).Centre sign:Traffic controller ahead be prepared to stop. Right sign:Workers ahead (day). Left sign:Approaching roadworks, slow down and be prepared to stop. Right sign: End road work.
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 STUDY DESIGN
Data for this paper was drawn from a larger quasi- experimental study, “Capacity building of drivers employed in the Ughelli LGA Delta State on provision of first aid for accident victims” conducted between February and August 2016.
3.2 STUDY AREA
Ughelli is a town in [Delta State], [Nigeria], as well as the headquarters of Ughelli North LGA. The city is dominated by the Uhrobo ethnic nationals, as well as a mixture of several other tribes such as the Igbo’s, Edo’s etc.
3.3 STUDY PARTICIPANTS
A total of 176 drivers (98 in the intervention and 78 in the control groups) employed by the Ughelli men who were available at the time of the survey and who provided informed consent participated in the study.
3.4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
The number of drivers per faculty/service unit ranged from 0 to 52. Using blocked randomization, 10 clusters each comprising 15 – 24 drivers were created and clusters allocated to study or comparative groups. The drivers were trained according to their clusters comprising 15 – 24 drivers to enhance participation and ensure that they benefited maximally from the training. The trainings for all the control drivers were conducted first in order to minimize interaction of control and intervention drivers.
3.5 STUDY PROCEDURES
The study was carried out in 3 phases: pre-intervention, intervention and post-intervention phase (immediate and 4-months post intervention). The pre-intervention phase involved administration of a semi-structured interviewer-administered questionnaire to the drivers. The pre-intervention data provided a baseline assessment of the drivers’ road safety knowledge and revealed that although their knowledge was generally high, it was still not 100 percent. The information obtained from the pre-intervention data highlighted the gaps in the drivers’ knowledge of road safety e.g. a number of the drivers were not aware of the speed limits on the expressway for different categories of vehicles and many were not aware of their roles in ensuring road safety. These and other identified gaps were thus emphasized during the training. The intervention drivers underwent a 2-day training in first aid while a training in HIV/AIDS was conducted for those in the control group. The training comprised didactic lectures and practical demonstrations. Development of the range of topics covered during the road safety training was guided by the gaps in the drivers’ knowledge of road safety identified during the baseline, information on road safety contained in literature on road safety and information in the Nigeria Highway Code1,16. During the training, emphasis was placed on clarifying the drivers’ misconceptions with regard to road safety identified during the baseline assessment. The Principal Investigator and officials of the Federal Road Safety Commission (FRSC) and Nigeria Red Cross facilitated the training. Additional details regarding the methodology have been reported in a previous publication 17.
3.6 STUDY MEASURES FOR INTERVENTION AND CONTROL DRIVERS
The drivers’ knowledge of road safety was assessed before, immediately and four months after the intervention with the aid of an interviewer- administered semi-structured questionnaire. The aim of the four month intervention was to assess retention of long-term knowledge of the drivers. This assessment was initially scheduled to take place three months post-intervention, however, it was conducted in the 4th month because of a nationwide strike embarked upon by all Ughelli men.
3.7 DATA ANALYSIS
Drivers’ knowledge of road safety
A total of 16 questions covering various aspects of road safety were asked and “one” point was awarded for each correct answer and “zero” for wrong answers. The scores were then summed giving minimum and maximum obtainable scores of 0 and 16 respectively. The respondents’ mean score and standard deviation were computed and compared across the three study phases. Quantitative data was analyzed using SPSS version 20. Mean scores for the outcome variables were compared using repeated measure analysis of variance (ANOVA) for within group comparisons and the independent t-test for between-group comparisons. A p value of < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Ughelli Hospital Ethical Review Committee. Informed consent was obtained from all the drivers and they were all assured that participation was voluntary and they would not suffer any consequences if they chose not to participate
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS
4.1 RESPONDENTS’ SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
A total of 176 respondents, 98 in the intervention group and 78 in the control group participated in the study. Twenty-nine respondents did not complete the study giving an overall attrition rate of 16.4% (13.3% and 20.5% among intervention and control drivers respectively). The socio-demographic characteristics of the drivers in the intervention and control groups were largely similar (Table 1). The mean age of respondents from the intervention group was 51.7± 5.8 years compared with 50.6 ± 5.8 years among those in the control group (p = 0.223). More than two-thirds of respondents 69 (70.4%) in the intervention group and 51(65.4%) of those in the control group had only primary education (Table 1). A higher proportion of respondents in the control group reported that they had attended at least a training in first aid 52 (66.7%) compared with those in the intervention group 52 (53.1%), p > 0.05 (Table 1).
4.3 KNOWLEDGE OF ROAD SAFETY
At baseline, the road safety knowledge of the intervention and control drivers was comparable (Table 2). The mean scores on knowledge of road safety were 12.7 ± 2.2 and 12.9 ± 2.3 in the intervention and control groups respectively at baseline; independent t-test = 0.660; p = 0.510, (Table 3). In the immediate post-intervention phase, the scores were marginally phases among the drivers in both the intervention and control groups (p> 0.05)Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics including respondents’ driving history
| Socio-demographicCharacteristics | Interventionn (%) | Controln (%) | Statistic | p-value |
| N = 98 | N = 78 | χ2 | ||
| Age group (years)a31 – 40 | 4 (4.2) | 6 (7.9) | ||
| 41 – 50 | 32 (33.3) | 34 (44.7) | ||
| > 51 | 60 (62.5) | 36 (47.4) | 4.192 | 0.123 |
| Mean Age (±S.D) years | 51.7 (5.8) | 50.6 (5.8) | t = 1.224 | 0.223 |
| Marital statusbMarried | 96 (99.0) | 78 (100) | ||
| Widowed | 1 (1.0) | – | – |
|
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Religion Tribe
Christianity Islam
75 (76.5)
23 (23.5)
54 (69.2)
24 (30.8) 1.182 0.306
Proportion of respondents who have assisted RTA victims in the month preceding the survey
Yes No
Proportion of respondents who have ever received training on first aid
62 (63.3)
36 (36.7)
43 (55.1)
35 (44.9) 1.195 0.27
| Yes 52 (53.1) | 52 (66.7) | |
| No 46 (46.9) | 26 (33.3) 3.326 | 0.068 |
| *Others including including Edo, Efik, Ishana = no response (2 in the intervention group, 2 in control group) | b = no response (1 in the intervention group) | |
| c = no response (2 in the intervention and 1 in the control group) |
Table 2: Respondents’ knowledge of road safety by study group and phase of study
Knowledge of road safety measures
Proportion of drivers with correct knowledge of road safety measures in the intervention group Proportion of drivers with correct knowledge of road safety measures in the control group.
|
The following are road safety measures
Using a seat belt when driving a
Driving > 100 km/ hour on the expressway
Overtaking a vehicle on the crest of a hill
Obeying traffic signs a
Drinking alcohol while driving if you need it
Reducing your speed when driving in bad weather a
Making phone calls on your mobile phone when driving
Regular servicing of vehicles a
Road Crashes be prevented a
The following can be involved in RTA prevention
Drivers a Pedestrians a Passengers a
Road Traffic Officers a
Police officers a
Bus conductors a
The speed limit for drivers on the expressway is 80 – 100km/hour a
a Correct responses
Table 3: Drivers aggregate road safety knowledge scores by study phase
| Study phase | Knowledge scoreIntervention | Control | IndependentT-test p-value | |
| Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | |||
| Pre-intervention | n = 9812.7 (2.2) | n = 7812.9 (2.3) | 0.660 | 0.510 |
| Immediate post intervention | n = 9713.8 (1.9) | n = 7613.3 (2.0) | 1.733 | 0.085 |
| 4-month post intervention | n = 8512.8 (1.6) | n = 6213.2 (1.8) | 1.504 | 0.135 |
4.4 DISCUSSION
This intervention study assessed the effect of driver training on the road safety knowledge of drivers in the Ughelli. At baseline, respondents in both the intervention and control groups had high level of knowledge of road safety. This is comparable to findings of Mock, Amegashie and Kwame (1999) in their study among commercial drivers in other country that reported that many of the drivers had good knowledge of road safety18. The high level of knowledge of our study participants at baseline might be as a result of previous exposure to first aid training which might have covered some topics in road safety since up to half of them mentioned that they higher among the intervention (13.8± 1.9) than control (13.3± 2.0) drivers; independent t-test = 1.733; p = 0.085.
In both groups of drivers, the mean road safety knowledge scores increased immediately after the intervention but this was higher among the intervention than control drivers. We tested the difference in mean pre (12.7±2.2) and immediate post-intervention (13.8±1.9) scores of the intervention drivers using a paired t-test and this showed a statistically significant difference in scores among the intervention group (paired t = 4.406; p < 0.001). There was no statistically significant difference in the mean pre (12.9±2.3) and immediate post-intervention (13.3±2.0) scores of the control drivers (paired t =1.168, p = 0.247).
Four months post intervention, intervention group scores fell slightly while scores among the control drivers increased. Repeated measure analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed no statistically significant change in road safety knowledge over the 3 study had received first aid training since commencing work in Ughelli LGA. Following the intervention, there was a significant increase in the road safety knowledge scores of the intervention drivers although this knowledge had reduced by the 4th month post- intervention. Johnson and Adebayo (2011) in their paper on, “The effect of safety education on knowledge of and compliance with road safety signs among commercial motorcyclists in Southern Nigeria” reported an increase in the post-intervention knowledge of their subjects although unlike our study, a high proportion of their respondents had a high knowledge 3-months post intervention. This difference might be due to the fact that majority of our respondents already had good road safety knowledge prior to the intervention. In addition, the tendency for the level of acquired knowledge to reduce over time which has also been noted in other studies may have contributed to the decline in knowledge among our sample. The average knowledge score of the control drivers increased slightly four months post intervention. This could have occurred because the intervention drivers could have shared some information with the controls. Although efforts were made to minimize contamination after the trainings (control trainings were conducted before the intervention); this cannot be totally eliminated. In addition, drivers could have been exposed to road safety information from other sources during the period between the intervention and the second post-intervention assessment. However, exposure to other sources of road safety information would have been distributed randomly between both intervention and control drivers and would not have been limited to only the control drivers
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 CONCLUSION
This study revealed that the training intervention resulted in an immediate increase in road safety knowledge, although this was not sustained to the fourth month post-intervention. Deliberate efforts to sustain immediate increases in knowledge through periodic re-trainings therefore need to be planned for at the point of development of such training programmes. In view of the study findings as well as the importance of good knowledge of road safety on driving behaviour and ultimately the occurrence of road crashes, we therefore recommend that the employers of the University drivers should provide them with periodic road safety training in order to instill and sustain good road safety knowledge in them.
5.2 LIMITATIONS
Our participants were drivers operating in the local Government hence, they may differ in socio-demographic characteristics as well as knowledge of road safety from drivers in other settings since they work in an academic community. Members of the drivers’ associations in Ughelli went for the programme and this resulted in attrition as some of the drivers traveled out of state and though they were willing to participate in the 4th month assessments, they were unable to immediately return to participate in this assessment.
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